Rap Music Use, Perceived Peer Behavior, and Sexual Initiation Among Ethnic Minority Youth
Kimberly A. Johnson-Baker, Dr.P.H.
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Center for Health Prevention and Promotion Research, University of Texas School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas
Article Outline
Abstract
Purpose
Research shows that rap music use is associated with risky sexual behavior in ethnic minority youth; however, it is unknown whether rap music use impacts sexual initiation specifically and, if so, which factors mediate this impact. Thus, we investigated the longitudinal relationship between hours spent listening to rap music in seventh grade and sexual initiation in ninth grade. We also examined the role of perceived peer sexual behavior as a potential mediator of this relationship.
Methods
We analyzed data from students (n = 443) enrolled in a school-based randomized controlled trial of a sexual health education curriculum collected at baseline and at 18-month follow-up. Rap music use and perceived peer sexual behavior were assessed in seventh grade, whereas sexual initiation was assessed in ninth grade. Univariate, multivariate, and mediation analyses were conducted.
Results
At baseline, rap music use was significantly associated with race/ethnicity, parental music rules, and sexual behavior, but not with gender or parental education. Rap music use was a significant predictor of sexual initiation on univariate analysis but not multivariate analysis. Mediation analysis showed that the association between hours spent listening to rap music and sexual initiation was significantly mediated by perceived peer sexual behavior.
Conclusions
Rap music use in early adolescence significantly impacts sexual initiation in late adolescence, partially mediated by perceived peer sexual behavior. More research is needed to understand how rap music influences perceptions of peer sexual behavior, which, in turn, influence early sexual initiation.
Ethnic minority youth (black and Hispanic) initiate sex at an earlier age than youth from other racial/ethnic groups [1, putting them at risk for multiple negative sexual health outcomes, such as HIV, sexually transmitted infection (STI), and unplanned pregnancy [[2], [3], [4]]. Although all youth experience pressure to initiate sex early, ethnic minority youth express greater pressure to conform to sexual norms than white youth [[5], [6]] and cite media as the source of sexual pressure (National Campaign, 2012). Ethnic minority youth consume a substantial amount of media including music, predominantly rap music [[7], [8]]; most of which contains sexually explicit content [[9], [10], [11]]. Research shows that sexually explicit media—media with extreme and/or subtle references to permissive sexual behavior—impact sexual behavior among youth [[10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15],[16], [17], [18]] and that rap music is more likely than other popular music genres (e.g., pop, rock) to contain sexually explicit content [[9], [11], [18]]. Moreover, high exposure to rap music has been shown to be associated with less parental monitoring, permissive sexual attitudes, multiple sexual partnering, and STI acquisition [[11],[18], [19], [20]]. However, previous research is limited to cross-sectional studies [[18], [21]] or to studies with older adolescents [[17], [19]]. Furthermore, it is unknown whether rap music use impacts early sexual initiation, a predictor of subsequent risky sexual behavior [20, and, if so, which factors mediate this impact. Thus, more research is needed to understand the impact of rap music on ethnic minority youth who listen to a higher amount of such music than do white youth [[7], [8]].
Social cognitive theory provides a theoretical basis for investigating the relationship between rap music and sexual behavior. According to social cognitive theory, children learn vicariously from media and are more likely to translate learning into behavior when (1) the role model is similar to the viewer in gender or ethnicity; (2) the behavior is perceived to be similar to real life; (3) the role model is attractive; and (4) the behavior is positively reinforced [22. Through observational learning and modeling, adolescents may develop attitudes and beliefs that support the role model's behavior [22, which, in turn, may influence their decision-making when in sexual possibility situations. This study assumed that through the use of rap music, adolescents (1) identify with rap music artists; (2) believe that sexual behavior is acceptable and reinforced in peer groups; and ultimately (3) act on the learned behavior when the opportunity is available. However, a greater understanding of how rap music influences adolescent sexual initiation is warranted. A possible mechanism underlying the relationship between rap music and sexual behavior is the influence of perceived peer behavior. Perceived peer behavior, the belief that one's peer group is sexually active, is a consistent predictor of early sexual initiation regardless of socioeconomic status, neighborhood contextual factors, parental characteristics, intention, and self-efficacy [[23], [24], [25], [26]]. Furthermore, sexually explicit media have been shown to function as a “super peer” for youth seeking guidance on sexual behavior [27, suggesting that media play a crucial role in setting norms for sexual behavior. To our knowledge, no study has examined the potential mediating role of perceived peer sexual behavior in the relationship between rap music use and sexual initiation.
In this study, we investigated the longitudinal relationship between hours spent listening to rap music in seventh grade and sexual initiation in ninth grade, while controlling for significant covariates. We also examined the role of perceived peer sexual behavior as a potential mediator of this relationship among urban, ethnic minority youth. We hypothesized that seventh-grade youth who listened to more hours of rap music are more likely than those who listened to fewer hours of rap music or none to initiate sex by ninth grade and that perceived peer sexual behavior mediates the relationship between rap music use and sexual initiation.
Methods
Sample and study design
We used longitudinal data from a school-based randomized controlled trial (RCT) that evaluated the effectiveness of a middle-school sexual health education curriculum in a large southern U.S. city [28. We analyzed data collected at baseline (n = 726) and at 18-month follow-up (n = 509 for univariate analysis, n = 443 for multivariate and mediational analyses) from control group participants to avoid any interference from the intervention. For the RCT, a standardized protocol including parental consent, student assent, and data collector training, was followed [26. Students completed computer-assisted surveys on laptops while being monitored by trained data collectors. For their participation, students received monetary incentives at each time point. This study was approved by the institutional review board of The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. Additional details about the RCT are provided elsewhere [26.
Measures
Independent variable
Rap music use
We used a single item to measure rap music use at baseline (seventh grade). Students were asked, “In a usual day, how many hours do you listen to rap or hip hop?” Responses included “I do not listen to rap music,” “Less than an hour a day,” “1–2 hours a day,” “3–4 hours a day,” “5–6 hours a day,” and “7 or more hours a day.” Responses were recoded as “I do not listen to rap music” (0 = “no use”), “Less than 2 hours a day” (1 = “low use”), and “3 or more hours a day” (2 = “high use”).
Dependent variable
Sexual initiation
We assessed sexual initiation at 18-month follow-up (ninth grade). Sexual initiation was defined as “ever having any sex” (i.e., vaginal, oral, or anal sex). Only those students who reported “no sex” at baseline were included in the longitudinal analysis.
Mediator variable
Perceived peer sexual behavior
We used a single item to assess perceived peer sexual behavior at baseline (seventh grade). Students were asked, “How many of your friends have had vaginal sex?” Responses ranged from “none” (0) to “most” (3). Higher scores represented higher perceived sexual activity among friends.
Covariates
Several variables known to influence both the independent and dependent variables were included as covariates. Covariates included gender, race/ethnicity, age, parental education, and parental monitoring. To assess parental monitoring, we included a measure of parental music rules. Students were asked, “Do you have rules in your house about the kinds of music that you listen to?” Responses included “no” (0) and “yes” (1).
Statistical analysis
Bivariate correlational analyses were used to examine the relationships between rap music use, perceived peer sexual behavior, and covariates. Chi-square analyses were performed to assess subgroup differences among these variables. Logistic regression was conducted to examine the relationship between hours spent listening to rap music per day at baseline and any engagement in sexual activity at 18-month follow-up. The primary independent variable of interest was the number of hours spent listening to rap music per day. All data were analyzed using PASW Statistics 18 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY).
Steps outlined by Baron and Kenny [[29], [30], [31]] were used to test the mediational relationship between rap music use, perceived peer sexual behavior, and sexual initiation. The conceptual model of the mediation is presented in Figure 1. First, a regression analysis was conducted to determine if rap music use was a predictor of perceived peer sexual behavior (pathway a in Figure 1). Second, a regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of perceived peer sexual behavior on sexual initiation (pathway b in Figure 1), while controlling for rap music use. Third, a regression analysis was conducted to determine if rap music use was a significant predictor of sexual initiation, while controlling for perceived peer sexual behavior (pathway c inFigure 1). Significance testing to determine partial mediation was completed using the Sobel test [32. Students who reported any sexual behavior at baseline, and those with missing data on priority variables, were excluded from the analyses, resulting in an analytic sample of 445 students.
Figure 1
Representation of the mediation model.
Results
Baseline characteristics for the sample are presented inTable 1. The sample had a mean age of 13 years (standard deviation = .60), was mostly female (56%), and was predominantly ethnic minority (42% Hispanic and 40% black). Most students reported rap music use; of these, 69% listened to 3 or more hours per day (high use), 17% listened to <2 hours per day (low use), and <10% did not listen to rap music (no use). Most students reported that their parents did not have rules about the type of music they could listen to (72%). Finally, most students perceived that their peers had not had sex (62%), and most had not had any sex (88%).
| Characteristic | % |
|---|---|
| Age, M (standard deviation) | 12.95 (.49) |
| Gender | |
| Male | 36.8 |
| Female | 63.2 |
| Race/ethnicity | |
| Black | 38.4 |
| Hispanic | 45.6 |
| Otherb | 16.0 |
| Maximum parent education | |
| Did not graduate high school | 29.6 |
| High school graduate | 22.6 |
| Some college | 17.6 |
| College graduate | 30.2 |
| Rap music use | |
| No use | 11.7 |
| <2 hours per day | 18.7 |
| ≥3 hours per day | 69.5 |
| Parent has music rules | |
| Yes | 28.7 |
| No | 71.3 |
| Perceived peer sexual behavior | |
| None | 70.2 |
| Few | 19.9 |
| Some | 6.1 |
| Most | 3.8 |
aSample was limited to those who did not have sex at baseline; thus, no data for baseline sexual behavior are reported.
bWhite, Asian/Pacific Island, and Native American.
Baseline characteristics by rap music use for the sample are presented in Table 2. Rap music use was not significantly associated with gender or parental education; however, it was significantly associated with race/ethnicity, parental music rules, perceived peer sexual behavior, and sexual behavior. In terms of race/ethnicity, black students were more likely than Hispanic students to report listening to 3 or more hours of rap music per day (χ2 = 50.1, p < .000). For parental music rules, high-use students were more likely than low-use and no-use students to report not having parental music rules (χ2 = 16.8, p = .004). In terms of perceived peer sexual behavior, high-use students were more likely than low-use and no-use students to report that their friends had had any sex (χ2 = 40.3, p < .000). Finally, in terms of sexual behavior, high-use students were more likely than low-use and no-use students to report having had sex (χ2 = 15.5, p < .000).
| Variable | na | Rap music use, % (n) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No use | Low use | High use | ||
| Overall | 726 | 9.6 (73) | 16.9 (128) | 69.3 (525) |
| Gender | 726 | |||
| Male | 41.1 (30) | 43.0 (55) | 42.5 (223) | |
| Female | 58.9 (43) | 57.0 (73) | 57.5 (302) | |
| Race/ethnicity∗∗ | 726 | |||
| Black | 6.8 (5) | 29.7 (38) | 47.0 (247) | |
| Hispanic | 65.8 (48) | 50.8 (65) | 33.1 (200) | |
| Otherb | 27.4 (20) | 19.5 (25) | 14.9 (78) | |
| Maximum parent education | 691 | |||
| Did not graduate high school | 28.2 (20) | 36.1 (43) | 25.7 (129) | |
| High-school graduate | 21.1 (15) | 21.8 (26) | 23.6 (118) | |
| Some college | 14.1 (10) | 13.4 (16) | 19.2 (96) | |
| College graduate | 36.6 (26) | 28.6 (34) | 31.5 (158) | |
| Parent has music rules∗∗ | 723 | |||
| Yes | 38.9 (28) | 39.1 (50) | 23.7 (124) | |
| No | 61.1 (44) | 60.9 (78) | 76.3 (399) | |
| Perceived peer sexual behavior∗∗ | 693 | |||
| None | 88.4 (61) | 74.4 (87) | 56.0 (284) | |
| Few | 8.7 (6) | 18.8 (22) | 23.1 (117) | |
| Some | 1.4 (1) | 2.6 (3) | 11.8 (60) | |
| Most | 1.4 (1) | 4.3 (5) | 9.1 (46) | |
| Has had any sex∗∗ | 724 | |||
| Yes | 2.7 (2) | 4.7 (6) | 14.3 (75) | |
| No | 97.3 (71) | 95.3 (122) | 85.7 (448) | |
aOnly includes participants with data available on selected variables.
bWhite, Asian/Pacific Island, and Native American.
∗∗p < .000.
Multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the association between rap music use in seventh grade and sexual initiation in ninth grade. Univariate analysis was first performed with baseline variables previously associated with sexual initiation to identify explanatory variables for multivariate logistic regression; variables found to be significant at the p < .20 level were then selected as candidates for multivariate logistic regression analysis. Only students who reported no sex at baseline were included in the regression analysis. Of these, those with a valid response at 18-month follow-up were included in the univariate analysis (n = 509). The multivariate analysis was restricted to students with a valid response for each variable included in the model (n = 443). The full model was significant (χ2 = 53.062, df = 9, p < .000) and correctly classified 79.5% of students. Results of the univariate and multivariate analyses are presented in Table 3. After adjusting for covariates, neither low rap music use (odds ratio [OR] = 1.181; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = .46–3.01; p = .727) nor high rap music use (OR = 2.231; 95% CI = .99–5.03; p = .053) significantly predicted sexual initiation, compared with no use of rap music. However, the findings for the relationship between high rap music use and sexual initiation did approach statistical significance. Gender (OR = 1.962; 95% CI = 1.26–3.04; p = .003), age (OR = 1.813; 95% CI = 1.18–2.79; p =.007), and perceived peer sexual behavior (OR = 2.03; 95% CI = 1.44–2.86; p =.000) remained significant predictors in the full model. Interaction terms for perceived peer sexual behavior and rap music use were not significant (p = .828).
| Variable | Univariate | Multivariate (n = 443) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nb | Odds ratio | 95% confidence interval | p | Odds ratio | 95% confidence interval | p | |
| Hours spent listening to rap musicc | 490 | ||||||
| Low use | 1.07 | .46–2.49 | .883 | 1.18 | .46–3.01 | .727 | |
| High use | 2.63 | 1.28–5.39 | .009 | 2.23 | .99–5.03 | .053 | |
| Genderd | 509 | 1.57 | 1.01–2.31 | .022 | 1.96 | 1.26–3.04 | .003 |
| Race/ethnicitye | 509 | ||||||
| Black | 1.39 | .78–2.46 | .266 | 1.02 | .53–1.95 | .960 | |
| Hispanic | 1.05 | .60–1.85 | .859 | .89 | .43–1.83 | .752 | |
| Age at baseline | 505 | 1.70 | 1.17–2.48 | .006 | 1.81 | 1.18–2.79 | .007 |
| Parent maximum education | 484 | .93 | .80–1.1 | .394 | .92 | .74–1.15 | .484 |
| Perceived peer sexual behavior | 477 | 2.56 | 1.86–3.51 | .000 | 2.03 | 1.44–2.86 | .000 |
Referent groups: cNo use, dFemale, and eOther (White, Asian/Pacific Island, and Native American).
aSample limited to those who reported “no sex” at baseline.
bOnly includes participants with data available on selected variables.
Mediation analysis was conducted to determine if perceived peer sexual behavior mediated the relationship between rap music use and sexual initiation. The standardized regression coefficient between hours spent listening to rap music and sexual initiation decreased substantially when controlling for perceived peer sexual behavior (Table 4). The other conditions of mediation were also met: Hours spent listening to rap music significantly predicted (1) sexual initiation (β = .227, p = .000); (2) perceived peer sexual behavior (β = .847, p = .000); and (3) perceived peer sexual behavior significantly predicted sexual initiation when controlling for hours spent listening to rap music (β = .452, p = .012). The Sobel test indicated that the association between hours spent listening to rap music and sexual initiation was partially mediated by perceived peer sexual behavior (z = 4.46, p < .000).
| Pathway | Analysis | β | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| c | Rap music use → sexual initiation | .614 | .000 |
| a | Rap music use → perceived peer behavior | .227 | .000 |
| b | Perceived peer sexual behavior → sexual initiationa | .847 | .000 |
| c' | Rap music use → sexual initiationb | .452 | .012 |
aControlled for rap music use.
bControlled for perceived peer sexual behavior.
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the longitudinal relationship between rap music use and sexual initiation and to examine the role of perceived peer sexual behavior as a potential mediator of this relationship. Overall, as hypothesized, we found that high use of rap music in seventh grade is significantly associated with sexual initiation in ninth grade and that this association is partially mediated by perceived peer sexual behavior. Rap music use was significantly associated with sexual initiation on univariate analysis but not on multivariate analysis; however, this relationship did approach significance. This could be attributed to the effect of perceived peer sexual behavior on sexual initiation. On mediation analysis, perceived peer behavior was found to partially mediate the relationship between rap music use and sexual initiation. Moreover, this finding suggests that listening to rap music does not directly influence sexual initiation. Instead, youth who listen to high amounts of rap music may be more likely than those who listen to low amounts of rap music or no rap music to believe that their peers are sexually active, which, in turn, may increase their likelihood of initiating sex. In addition, although rap music use was not significant in the full model, mediation analysis is still plausible because establishing full mediation was not our intent. This partial mediation was found to be distal suggesting that additional variables or competing variables that should be investigated [33. This study establishes a foundation for the need to investigate a multiple mediation model to further explain the relationship between rap music use, perceived peer behavior, and sexual initiation.
At baseline, perceived peer sexual behavior was significantly associated with rap music use. Specifically, students who listened to high amounts of rap music were more likely than those who listened to low amounts of rap music or no rap music to believe that their peers were sexually active, and the percentage of students who believed that their peers were sexually active increased as the use of rap music increased. This finding may be due to rap music acting as a super peer for youth seeking guidance on sexual behavior [14. Based on this theorized mechanism, youth who listen to high amounts of rap music may personally identify with rap music culture and thus may be more likely to be influenced by its sexualized messages because they are either seeking peer approval of sexual behavior or feeling pressure to conform to perceived sexual behavior within their peer networks. Furthermore, ethnic minority youth may be more likely to identify with rap music imagery and to perceive cultural messages about sex as truth, especially if there are no alternative messages reflecting healthy sexual behavior [34. Additional longitudinal studies are needed to determine the direction of the association between rap music use and perceived peer sexual behavior.
At baseline, students who listened to more rap music differed significantly from those who listened to less or no rap music. For instance, high-use students were more likely than low-use and no-use students to be sexually active at baseline during the seventh grade. Although only 12% of students were sexually active at baseline, the proportion of students who had initiated sex increased as rap music use increased. Because this particular relationship is cross-sectional, the direction of the effect remains unknown. Compared with high-use students, low-use and no-use students were mostly Hispanic, overwhelmingly believed that their peers were not sexually active, and were more likely to have parental music rules. In terms of race/ethnicity, rap music use differed significantly between Hispanic and black students; black students were more likely than Hispanic students to listen to 3 or more hours of rap music per day. This finding is inconsistent with previous findings indicating equal usage rates of rap music among students from different racial/ethnic backgrounds [[7], [8]]. It is unclear why black students consumed more rap music than Hispanic students. Whether black youth are more likely than other ethnic minority youth to identify with, seek out, and be influenced by rap music culture because of the abundance of cultural imagery and stereotypes warrants further study. In terms of parental music rules, more than two thirds of the sample reported not having parental rules about the type of music they could listen to. Parental music rules were inversely related to rap music use; the percentage of students who had parental music rules decreased as rap music use increased. Monitoring the music use of contemporary youth is highly challenging; however, such efforts are needed because parents who have clear rules about the type and amount of music their youth can listen to may help to limit their exposure to music with sexually explicit content. Parental monitoring of media use has been found to be associated with positive outcomes among adolescents [35. However, additional research is warranted because less is known about the relationship between parental music rules and sexually explicit media use, specifically rap music [19.
This study has some limitations. First, because the sample was composed of mostly urban, ethnic minority youth, the findings are generalizable only to minority adolescent populations in large urban areas. Second, the sample was not large enough to allow us to examine differences by gender and race/ethnicity; thus, the extent to which gender and race/ethnicity affect the relationship between perceived peer sexual behavior, rap music use, and sexual initiation remains unknown. Much of the sexually suggestive themes in rap music are female focused [10, so it could be that rap music is more likely to influence adolescent females' beliefs about peer sexual behavior than those of male adolescents. However, we did not examine whether this gender bias in lyrical content influences perceived peer sexual behavior or the onset of sexual initiation differently for males than for females. Moreover, we did not examine whether rap music influences black and Hispanic students equally. Third, the rap music variable used did not specify type of rap music or rap music media channel (e.g., radio, Internet, music videos), so it is unknown if students were influenced by messages through lyrical content or visual representation via videos. In addition, this variable did not measure the level of sexually explicit content in rap music, although most mainstream rap music contains sexually explicit content [[9], [10], [11]], so it was only assumed that this variable was an adequate estimate of mainstream rap music content. Because of the cross-sectional nature of the relationship between rap music use and perceived peer behavior, the directionality of this relationship remains unknown. Whether increased exposure to rap music influences an adolescent's perception of peer behavior, which, in turn, influences his or her own sexual behavior is unclear. The study also did not control for time spent alone, idle time, and other parental monitoring variables. Further investigation should include multiple mediation model that includes variable to account for time spent alone and ensures that temporal precedence is established.
In conclusion, we found that, for ethnic minority youth, high use of rap music in early adolescence is associated with sexual initiation in late adolescence but that the strength of this association decreases considerably when age, gender, and perceived peer behavior are taken into account. In addition, we found that this association is partially mediated by perceived peer sexual behavior. These findings have important implications for sexual health interventions and future research. Adolescent experiences sexual development in a complex environment where individual (e.g., impulsivity, self-efficacy, early pubertal onset, perceived peer norms), interpersonal (e.g., infrequent parental monitoring); community (e.g., STI rates, neighborhood trauma), and societal (e.g., permissive norms, race, and gender) factors all influence their sexual behavior trajectory [[20], [23], [25]]. It is understandable that ethnic minority youth are more likely to initiate sex early due to the fact that they are more likely to experience the aforementioned factors [20. Intervening on several social determinants is desirable but less feasible. Therefore, addressing perceived peer behavior may prove to be a more achievable goal in the interim as public health professionals work to develop and evaluate long-term multilevel interventions to improve adolescent sexual behavior. Rap music and forms of progressive hip-hop education could be used as tools to deconstruct sexually explicit messages adolescents receive. Parents can play a more proactive role by having open conversations with youth regarding sexually explicit themes in rap music while setting clear expectations for responsible sexual and dating behavior. Interventionists and program developers should consider adapting current adolescent sexual health programs by providing youth opportunities to simultaneously challenge permissive sexual norms in rap music and misperceptions about peer sexual behavior.
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